Immunotherapy is a cancer treatment that helps your immune system fight cancer. It is a type of biological therapy. Biological therapy uses substances made from living organisms or versions of these substances made in a lab. Immunotherapy isn't used for all cancers, and the response to treatment varies. If you're getting immunotherapy, your health care provider will monitor your treatment closely.

Immunotherapy isn't used as often as other cancer treatments, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. But immunotherapy is used for some types of cancer, and researchers are doing clinical trials to see whether it also works for other types.

Cancer begins in your cells, which are the building blocks of your body. Usually, your body forms new cells as needed, replacing old cells that die. Sometimes, this process goes wrong. When you have cancer, some of your cells begin to multiply without stopping, and old cells don't die when they should. They spread into the surrounding tissues.

One reason cancer cells can keep growing and spreading is that they can hide from your immune system. Some immunotherapies can "mark" your cancer cells. This makes it easier for your immune system to find and destroy the cells. It is a type of targeted therapy that uses medicines or other substances that attack specific cancer cells with less harm to normal cells. Other types of immunotherapies work by boosting your immune system to work better against cancer.

There are different forms of immunotherapy, so how they are given varies. You could get immunotherapy intravenously (by IV), in pills or capsules, or cream for your skin. For bladder cancer, they might place it directly into your bladder.

How often and how long you get immunotherapy also varies. It depends on your type of cancer, how advanced it is, the type of immunotherapy you get, and how well it is working. You may have treatment every day, week, or month. Some immunotherapies are given in cycles, so your body has time to rest and recover.

You may have side effects. The most common side effects are skin reactions at the needle site if you get it by IV. Other side effects may include flu-like symptoms or, rarely, severe reactions.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

Cervical cancer is cancer that starts in the cells of the cervix. The cervix is part of the female reproductive system. It is the lower, narrow end of the uterus (womb), which opens into the vagina (birth canal).

Cervical cancer usually develops slowly. Before cervical cells become cancer, they start to look abnormal. These cells are called "precancers." If they aren't destroyed or removed, they may become cancer cells that grow out of control and spread to other parts of your body.

Screening tests for cervical cancer can help find abnormal cells so you can get treatment to prevent cervical cancer. These tests can also find cervical cancer early when it's usually easier to treat.

Almost all cervical cancers are caused by a long-lasting infection with a virus called human papillomavirus (HPV). There are many types of HPV. The types that cause cancer are called "high-risk HPV." High-risk HPV is very common. It can be passed from one person to another through close skin-to-skin touching, usually during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Most people who are infected have no symptoms and don't know they have it.

If you're infected with high-risk HPV, usually your immune system will get rid of it within a year or two. But if your immune system can't control the infection, it may last for many years. Over time, HPV can turn normal cervical cells into abnormal cells. Without treatment, these cells may keep changing until they become cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer is most common in people over age 30. If you have a high-risk HPV infection in your cervix, you're more likely to develop cervical cancer if you:

• Have a weakened immune system because you:
  • Have a disease that harms your immune system, such as HIV.
  • Take medicine to control your immune system, such as certain medicines to treat cancer or autoimmune diseases
• Smoke tobacco or breathe secondhand smoke.
• Use birth control pills or have given birth to many children.
• Have obesity.
• Were exposed to a medicine called DES (diethylstilbestrol) before you were born. Between 1940-1971, DES was sometimes prescribed during pregnancy to prevent miscarriages. DES was later linked to health problems, including cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer usually doesn't cause symptoms when it first starts to grow. But when it does cause symptoms, they may include:

• Vaginal bleeding that's not normal for you, such as bleeding after sex or between menstrual periods
• Vaginal discharge (fluid) that's watery and has a strong odor or contains blood
• Pelvic pain or pain during sex

If cervical cancer spreads to other parts of your body, symptoms may include:

• Unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge
• Pelvic pain or pain during sex
• Difficult or painful bowel movements (poops) or bleeding from the rectum when having a bowel movement
• Difficult or painful urination (peeing) or blood in your urine (pee)
• Dull backache
• Swollen legs
• Abdominal (belly) pain
• Fatigue

If you have symptoms or had an abnormal result on a screening test for cervical cancer, your health care provider will do more tests to find out if you have cervical cancer. They will:

• Ask about your medical history and your family health history
• Do a pelvic exam
• Suggest tests to diagnose or rule out cervical cancer, including:
  • Colposcopy, a procedure using a device called a colposcope, which helps your provider examine your cervix for abnormal areas
  • Cervical biopsy, a procedure to remove a tissue sample from your cervix so that it can be examined under a microscope to look for signs of cancer. Most biopsies can be done in your provider's office

Different treatments are available for cervical cancer. The best treatment for you depends on your health, how much cancer you have, whether it has spread, and which treatment you prefer. You may have more than one treatment, including:

• Surgery to remove the cancer.
• Radiation therapy, which uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. The therapy may use radiation from a machine, or a radioactive substance may be placed in your body near the cancer.
• Chemotherapy (chemo), which uses special medicines to shrink or kill the cancer. The medicine may be pills, or it may be given through a vein (by IV). Sometimes, both types of chemo are used.
• Targeted therapy, which uses special medicines to block the growth and spread of cancer cells.
• Immunotherapy, which helps your immune system fight cancer cells.

Almost all cervical cancer can be prevented by:

• HPV vaccination. HPV vaccines provide the most protection if you get them before you're exposed to HPV. So, it's best to get vaccinated before you become sexually active. Medical experts recommend vaccinating children between ages 9 and 12.
• Routine cervical cancer screening. Two types of screening tests may be part of your routine health checkup. Both tests use a sample of cervical cells that your provider collects with a swab:
  • A Pap smear checks for abnormal cells so they can be treated before they become cancer
  • An HPV test checks for high-risk HPV infections that can cause cancer.
• Getting the right follow-up treatment if a screening test finds abnormal cells and/or high-risk HPV.

You can lower your risk for cervical cancer by not smoking. Using condoms correctly during sex lowers your risk of getting an HPV infection, but doesn't prevent it completely. Condom use has been linked to fewer cases of cervical cancer. If you or your partner is allergic to latex, you can use polyurethane condoms.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

Cervical cancer is cancer that starts in the cells of the cervix. The cervix is part of the female reproductive system. It is the lower, narrow end of the uterus (womb), which opens into the vagina (birth canal). Cervical cancer screening is an important part of routine health care for people who have a cervix.

Cervical cancer screening tests look for cancer before you have any symptoms. Cervical cancer usually develops slowly. Before cervical cells become cancer, they start to look abnormal. These cells are called "precancers". If they aren't destroyed or removed, they may become cancer cells that grow out of control and spread to other parts of your body.

Screening can help find abnormal cells so you can get treatment to prevent cervical cancer. These tests can also help to find cervical cancer early when it's usually easier to treat.

Cervical cancer screening is usually part of a woman's health checkup during a pelvic exam. These tests use a sample of cervical cells that your health care provider collects with a swab:

• A Pap test (also called a Pap smear or cervical cytology) checks for abnormal cells so they can be treated before they become cancer.
• An HPV (human papillomavirus) test checks for certain HPV infections that can cause cancer. HPV is a group of viruses that spread through sexual contact. The types that cause cancer are called "high-risk HPV."
• The HPV/Pap cotest uses an HPV and Pap test together to check for both high-risk HPV and cervical cell changes.

If your screening tests are abnormal, your provider may do more tests, such as a biopsy. How often you should be screened for cervical cancer and which tests you should get will depend on your age and health history.

Cervical cancer screening saves lives. Screening can detect cervical changes early, lowering your chance of dying from cervical cancer. But, cervical cancer screening has potential harms.

The possible harms of cervical cancer screening include:

The results can sometimes be wrong.

• Getting a false-positive result means that your test results appear abnormal, but there are no precancerous or cancerous cells. A false-positive may lead to:
  • Worry while you have more tests to look for signs of cancer.
  • Follow-up tests or treatment that you may not have needed.
• Getting a false-negative result means that your test results appear normal, but there are precancer or cancerous cells. A false-negative may lead to:
  • You may delay seeking treatment even if you have symptoms.

Talk with your provider about how often you should be screened for cervical cancer and which tests you should get. This will depend on your age and health history. If you have a cervix, it's recommended that you have your first Pap smear at age 21 and begin screening with an HPV test at age 25. You may need screening more often if you:

• Had an abnormal HPV test, Pap smear, or cervical biopsy in the recent past.
• Have had a diagnosis of cervical cancer.
• Have a weakened immune system.
• Were exposed to a drug called DES (Diethylstilbestrol) before you were born. Between the years 1940-1971, DES was sometimes prescribed to prevent miscarriages.

If you are over age 65 and have had regular Pap smear screenings with normal results, your provider may tell you that you no longer need them. If you have HIV, you may need to continue screenings after age 65.

You don't need cervical cancer screening if you had a total hysterectomy (surgery to remove your uterus and cervix) because of a condition that was not cancer. But if your hysterectomy was related to cervical cancer or precancer, ask your provider whether you need screening.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

The esophagus is a hollow tube that carries food and liquids from your throat to your stomach. Early esophageal cancer usually does not cause symptoms. Later, you may have symptoms such as:

• Painful or difficult swallowing
• Weight loss
• A hoarse voice or cough that doesn't go away

You're at greater risk for getting esophageal cancer if you smoke, drink heavily, or have acid reflux. Your risk also goes up as you age

Your doctor uses imaging tests and a biopsy to diagnose esophageal cancer. Treatments include surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. You might also need nutritional support, since the cancer or treatment may make it hard to swallow.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

Cancer of the eye is uncommon. It can affect the outer parts of the eye, such as the eyelid, which are made up of muscles, skin and nerves. If the cancer starts inside the eyeball it's called intraocular cancer. The most common intraocular cancers in adults are melanoma and lymphoma. The most common eye cancer in children is retinoblastoma, which starts in the cells of the retina. Cancer can also spread to the eye from other parts of the body.

Treatment for eye cancer varies by the type and by how advanced it is. It may include surgery, radiation therapy, freezing or heat therapy, or laser therapy.